hofstede cultural dimensions masculinity vs femininity

Table A3 in the online appendix provides all measurement details of the selected items.10 The correlational wave-averaged analysis yields a set of 15 items that fulfill all of the above criteria, that is, considerable country coverage, multiple wave coverage, attitude-based, and significantly correlated with country scores on the four original Hofstede dimensions or included to calculate country scores in the fifth and sixth dimension. The IBM studies revealed that (a) womens values differ less among societies than mens values; (b) mens values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from womens values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to womens values on the other. Meanwhile, in countries with high power distance, parents may expect children to obey without questioning their authority. We find that the dimensions correlate high with the original Hofstede dimensions, and low with one another (see Table A5 in the online appendix). However, Hofstede (1991) changed the name of this dimension using the more general label of Long-Term (vs. Short-Term) Orientation. With a high score of 63 it is clear that South Africa has a culture of Indulgence. FOIA GDP = gross domestic product. Communal affiliations and commitments continue but are chosen rather than imposed. Despite this shift toward Joy, young people in ex-communist countries are still more duty-oriented than young people in advanced postindustrial democracies. This article provided a synthesis of Hofstedes multidimensional culture framework and Ingleharts theory of cultural change. Together these three factors explain 72% of the variation in this set of 15 items. Two other dimensions were added in later years by Hofstede and independent researchers: long-term orientation and indulgence vs. self-restraint. Power Distance Index | Individualism | Masculinity | Uncertainty Avoidance Index | Long-Term Orientation, How cross cultural differences caused Korean Airlines problems, Iphone app Geert Hofstedes 5 cultural dimensions, Learning to Understand China : Personal experience. This leads us to drop the item pride-in-nation from our analysis. Grossmann and Varnum (2015), for instance, infer an increase of individualism from changing word frequencies documented in the Google-Ngram-Database for the United States. There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. Individualistic societies put more value on self-striving and personal accomplishment, while more collectivistic societies put more emphasis on the importance of relationships and loyalty. We select items that are limited to preferences and beliefs, thus excluding questions on objective facts, like the number of children in the household.9 We select those countries from the WVS-EVS for which the same question has been asked to a substantial number of respondents (Uz, 2015). Masculinity versus Femininity reflects an emphasis on caring . government site. Hence, socioeconomic transformations that turn the nature of life from a source of threats into a source of opportunities nurture a generational shift in priorities from survival to emancipative values. Masculinity versus femininity cultural dimension serves as an indication for the level of appreciation for traditional masculine values of achievement, status and power within a group. Beugelsdijk S., Kostova T., Roth K. (2017). Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles In other words, countries experiencing similar socioeconomic transformations change their values in the same direction, but they do so coming from different starting positions and continue to move along separate trajectories, which reflect the lasting impact of remote, country-specific historic drivers. ambition, acquisition of wealth, and differentiated gender roles. The answer to this question is obvious to us, as it seems self-evident that Collectivism and Duty are more adaptive to existential pressures, while the opposite valuesIndividualism and Joyare adaptive to existential opportunities (Varnum & Grossmann, 2017). Making Sense of Cross Cultural Communication. The point is that variance/co-variance patterns in psychological orientations are much stronger between than within countries and that the power of culture is responsible for that: culture tends to delimit psychological variation within entities and to expand it between them. As Hofstede himself argued, any replication of the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension should be closely associated with national measures of interpersonal trust (Minkov & Hofstede, 2014, p. 165). A visual inspection of these figures highlights two interesting observations. In individualistic cultures, people choose their affiliations voluntarily; in collectivistic cultures, they are imposed on them: people cannot escape obligations to their lineagewhat Banfield (1958) once called amoral familism. Likewise, the difference between Individualism and Collectivism is not one of solidarity as such but one of the type of solidarity that prevails. Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. Countries like the United States, Mexico, China, and Japan are all considered to be masculine. He later added two more dimensions using the World Values Surveys (WVS; Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Note: Advanced postindustrial democracies (N = 25; Nrespondents = 153,868) include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmarka, Finland, Francea, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italya, Japan, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United States. What is femininity according to Hofstede? In summary, there are pronounced residual variances in our three cultural dimensions that remain unexplicable by contemporary country characteristics. Using the cultural dimensions thus found, we follow Ingleharts cohort approach (Inglehart, 1990, 1997; Inglehart & Welzel, 2005) and assess intergenerational cultural change by comparing five birth cohorts between 1900 and 2000. Workaholism is another expression of their Masculinity. All information required to replicate the material presented in this article are available at this journals website. Our analysis suggests that approximately the other half of national cultural differences can be related to each countrys unique geography and history. Intergenerational change in the DutyJoy dimension is almost absent in low-income societies and minimal for developing societies, highlighting the relevance of economic development for developing joyous orientations. People within these cultures also tend to be more emotional. This second dimension also captures beliefs about proper goals in life (living also for the moment, that is, joy) thereby capturing two classic cultural dimensions (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). By contrast, if one lets the data decide if the 20 items cohere in two clearly distinct dimensions, the answer is a resounding No: There is just one dimension, which is mostly due to the fact that the traditional end in Traditional versus Secular-rational Values and the survival end in Survival versus Self-expression Values are highly convergent (Li & Bond, 2010). Results are summarized in Table 5. The minimum of 15 years reduces the sample size considerably. The resulting fixed effect can be interpreted as the unique country-specific determinant of scores on the three dimensions of national culture. Although highly influential, Hofstedes and Ingleharts works have been heavily criticized. Within a business, Hofstedes framework can also help managers to understand why their employees behave the way they do. 17.In addition to GDP per capita, we have explored a broader indicator of welfare. For example, as Hamden-Turner and Trompenaars (1997) have envisioned, the cultural influence of western powers such as the United States has likely influenced a tide of individualism in the notoriously collectivist Japanese culture. Country-Level Factor Analysis of Hofstedes Six Dimensions. Hofstede, G. (1991). Here, we calculate the country-fixed effect that results after taking economic development and autonomous cohort effects into account. Outside of sociology, Hofstedes work is also applicable to fields such as cross-cultural psychology, international management, and cross-cultural communication. There are no WITI online coaching circles scheduled at this time. Consistent with our theory, we expect country scores on CollectivismIndividualism and DutyJoy to increase over time. The wave-averaged scores for all countries can be found in Table A9 in the online appendix.12. Higher scores on the second dimension Duty-Joy coincide with higher scores on Indulgence/Short-Term Orientation (and lower on Restraint/Long-Term Orientation). Accordingly, these residuals reflect more remote determinants of country trajectories, such as precolonial factor endowments and colonial legacies. A high femininity score indicates that traditionally feminine gender roles are more important in that society; a low femininity score indicates that those roles are less important. We calculate country averages on the selected items because our analysis is done at the ecological level, which is the appropriate level of analysis when national cultures is the object of study (Hofstede, 2001). Our analysis collapses Hofstedes six-dimensional framework to a three-dimensional framework. We define five birth cohorts: 1900-1919, 1920-1939, 1940-1959, 1960-1979, and 1980-1999. This framework is used in a variety of fields including cross-cultural management, international business, and cross-cultural psychology (for overviews, see Beugelsdijk, Kostova, Kunst, Spadafora, & van Essen, 2018; Beugelsdijk, Kostova, & Roth, 2017; Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006; Taras, Steel, & Kirkman, 2012), and has recently sparked the interest of economists too (e.g., Gorodnichenko & Roland, 2011; Klasing, 2013). All three figures suggest that cultural change occurs and that societies generally tend to move in similar directions. By estimating a fixed-effects model, we control for all other possible characteristics of countries such as their unique country-specific history (including ex-communism) and geography (e.g., climatic conditions). For example, individualism vs. collectivism can help explain why some cultures place more emphasis on personal achievement than others. These are strong generational effects. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, Are scores on Hofstedes dimensions stable over time? To identify such generational cultural shifts on the three dimensions, we need to determine first which polar end in each of these dimensions is closer to existential pressures and survival and which to existential opportunities and emancipation. The .gov means its official. Beugelsdijk S., De Groot H. L. F., van Schaik T. (2004). Japan falls close to the middle. As mentioned, country scores on the fifth and sixth Hofstede dimension are already based on WVS-EVS items. This can be explained by the the combination of a high Masculinity drive together with the most Individualist drive in the world. and identical political systems (Hofstede, 2011). There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. Integrating insights from sociology and political science on intergenerational cultural shift in the context of an updated Hofstede framework allows for a more complete understanding of national cultural differences and how they have changed during the last decades. Former Soviet Satellites (N = 9; Nrespondents = 51,008) include Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. * A country may score above 100 if it was added after a formula for the scale had already been fixed. A response bias and outlier analysis can be found in the online appendix. On the other hand, in countries with high power distance, parents expect children to obey without questioning. With the above limitation in mind, our main findings regarding cultural change can be summarized as follows: It needs to be emphasized that our analyses have been conducted at the group level, which is the level at which culture operates in shaping the norms and beliefs of individuals. The persistent difference between ex-communist countries and advanced postindustrial democracies highlights the role of history. All in all, as McSweeney (2002) points out, Hofstedes theory is a useful starting point for cultural analysis, but there have been many additional and more methodologically rigorous advances made in the last several decades. South Africa, with a score of 65 is an Individualist society. The implication of this is that cultures endorse and expect relations that are more consultative or democratic, or egalitarian. Although none of the three questions originally used by Hofstede relate to hierarchy in the family, Hofstede has argued that Power Distance extends to the family (Hofstede, 2001). Masculinity vs. femininity refers to a dimension that describes the extent to which strong distinctions exist between men's and women's roles in society. Overall, our findings reported in Table 6 are robust to inclusion or exclusion of items as discussed in Hofstedes Dimensions: A WVS-EVS Based Re-Examination section. Power Distance versus Closeness reflects the extent to which people reject (Distance) or appreciate (Closeness) hierarchies and the authority of a few over the many. The cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries (rather than individuals) from each other. Beugelsdijk S., Kostova T., Kunst V. E., Spadafora E., van Essen M. (2018). We include the item on (lack of) trust in the factor that reflects Uncertainty Avoidance (Dimension 3), because Hofstede has related lack of trust to Uncertainty Avoidance (Hofstede, 2001, p. 169; Minkov & Hofstede, 2014, p. 165), and this trust question is related to institutional well-functioning (Beugelsdijk & Maseland, 2011). The correspondence between objective living conditions and subjective life orientations consists in the fact that preventive closure is adaptive under pressing threats, while promotive openness is adaptive in the presence of promising opportunities. 8600 Rockville Pike Which dimensions matter for long-run growth? (2010) to calculate country scores on the two additional dimensions of IVR and LTO. 12.A careful look at the country scores shows that Vietnam, Uzbekistan, and China score relatively high on trust (low on distrust). People of higher status may expect conspicuous displays of respect from subordinates. The decision to label this dimension Duty-Joy is in line with the fact that the items included are closely related to Hofstedes IVR (all three items of his IVR dimension are included in our second dimension) and less so to Hofstedes Long-Term Orientation (of which we only include one of the three items for reasons explained earlier). Apparently, historically emerged differences in country trajectories are by a large magnitude more powerful in CollectivismIndividualism than in the other two dimensions. For example, in a highly indulgent society, people may tend to spend more money on luxuries and enjoy more freedom when it comes to leisure time activities. Hofstedes current framework consists of six dimensions for which the country scores can be downloaded from his website (www.geerthofstede.com). We observe a similar pattern in our WVS-EVS analysis. After establishing that first order autocorrelation (AR1) is present, we control for AR1 by estimating a panel-fixed effects model where we correct our standard errors for any kind of serial autocorrelation and/or heteroscedasticity. Developing societies (N = 12; Nrespondents = 74,071) include Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Iran, Mexico, Singapore, South Africa, Thailand, Turkey, Uruguay, and Venezuela. In contrast, Hofstede says a feminine culture or feminine society is one where gender roles are more fluid. WITI is redefining the way women and men collaborate to drive innovation and business growth and is helping corporate partners create and foster gender inclusive cultures. The DistrustTrust dimension is 10 points lower (N = 44). The cohort dummies are significant in all three models. Restraint. While Hofstede has been questioned for presuming a too stable notion of national culture, his framework has also been questioned for overestimating the number of dimensions, misinterpreting their meaning, and using data of questionable quality (Ailon, 2008; Baskerville, 2003; Baskerville-Morley, 2005; Fang, 2003; McSweeney, 2002, 2009; Taras et al., 2012; Venaik & Brewer, 2016). Societies that score higher on the masculinity scale tend to value assertiveness, competition, and material success. Notwithstanding its significance and continuing popularity, Hofstedes framework is certainly not without criticism (McSweeney, 2002, 2009; Minkov, 2018; Nakata, 2009). Later, researchers added restraint vs. indulgence to this list. WVS = World Values Surveys; EVS = European Values Studies. 34-36). For comparability, the sample is the same in each survey round. As explained in the main text, we chose not to include a sixth question on importance of service to others that Hofstede et al. Below, we correlate these country-specific factors for the three dimensions with a series of exogenous variables related to precolonial opportunity endowments embodied in geography and subsequent colonial histories (a detailed overview of these variables and their sources can be found in Online Appendix Table A8). Country specificities on DistrustTrust seem to depict the genetic distance between Sub-Saharan Africans who are low on trust, and East Asians who are high on it. Ingleharts materialism-postmaterialism index is the construct based on four items (see Inglehart, 1971) related to the importance of maintaining order in the nation, fighting rising prices, giving people more say in important political decisions, and protecting freedom of speech. What determines femininity and masculinity biology or culture? The essentials of scholarship: A reply to Geert Hofstede. Ingleharts dynamic concept of culture, by contrast, prevails in sociology and political science. Hampden-Turner, C., & Trompenaars, F. (1997). Note: Dots above the Isoline changed toward Individualism, dots below toward Collectivism. The United States scored a 62 on Hofstedes scale. He constructed his culture framework from data collected in attitudinal surveys conducted in subsidiaries of IBM in 72 countries between 1968 and 1973 (reduced to 40 countries after the criterion of at least 50 respondents was applied). We are committed to engaging with you and taking action based on your suggestions, complaints, and other feedback. For example, if a company wants to sell its products in a country with a high collectivism score, it may need to design its packaging and advertising to appeal to groups rather than individuals. Zhou et al.s series of interviews of Chinese grandmothers strongly suggest an intergenerational shift from Collectivism toward individualism in China (Zhou, Yiu, Wu, & Greenfield, 2018). Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies, An ecocultural taxonomy for cross-cultural psychology. Sex refers to the anatomical and other biological differences between females and males that are determined at the moment of conception and develop in the womb and throughout childhood and adolescence. As a consequence, the emphasis on individual self-determination goes together with an emphasis on equal opportunities, giving rise to emancipative values that support universal freedoms (Welzel, 2013). The STATA command we use is xtreg depvar indpvars, fe, cluster(country). The alternative is to apply a DriscollKraay estimator (the xtscc command in STATA), but this results in smaller standard errors and larger t values. (2007). LTO and IVR also form one factor in an ecological factor analysis. For DistrustTrust, we find the largest contribution of the country-fixed effects, a result in line with our earlier observation on the relative stability of this DistrustTrust dimension across generations. Rising IQ in the twenty-first century, Assessing construct validity in organizational research, Trust: The social virtues and the creation of prosperity. In both cases, cohorts are only included when at least 100 respondents are included in each cohort. Emphasizing Collectivism and Duty belong to the preventive closure mentality and are, thus, more likely to prevail under the conditions favoring preventive closure, which is existential threats. The World Values Surveys (WVS) is the ideal database for this purpose. As many times as Ingleharts work has been cited, it has been criticizedand often quite strongly so. Impartiality and universalism liberate people from obligations to the extended family. In other words, these data may not be representative. Masculinity vs. Femininity: Masculinity implies a society's preference for assertiveness, heroism, achievement and material reward for attaining success. Based on Floridas (2002) work on how members of the growing creative class in postindustrial economies blend Bohemian with Puritan values, we doubt that indulgence automatically includes a Short-Term Orientation. Online readings in psychology and culture, 2 (1), 2307-0919. Live to make parents proud (high to low). Economic progress and generational effects do not explain cultural change completely though. and formal institutions only work in individualistic cultures. The pattern for Trust is different. While national scores on LTO were originally available only for a limited number of countries, Hofstede et al. A masculine society values assertiveness, courage, strength, and competition; a feminine society values cooperation, nurturing, and quality of life (Hofstede, 1980). In addition, for the DutyJoy dimension, we observe that each cohort is consistently more joyous than previous generations. The fifth item relating to the preference given to own nationals when jobs are scarce captures the parochialism and group-egoism that is inherent in Collectivism at the opposite pole of Individualism. (2002). Second, the items that correlate with Uncertainty Avoidance versus Acceptance do not correlate significantly with the other dimensions. The number of time periods is too short to perform such tests. Virtual programme Cross-Cultural Management, The Multi-Focus Model on Organisational Culture. This article describes briefly the Hofstede's four dimensions of national cultures: Power Distance, Individualism vs. Collectivism, Masculinity vs. Femininity and Uncertainty Avoidance and describes Turkey in terms of these dimensions. People from countries low in uncertainty avoidance dont mind it when a teacher says, I dont know.. It has a Cronbachs alpha of .87. Supplemental Material: Supplemental material for thhis article is online available. In all models, the vast majority of the variance in the scores on cultural dimensions is due to differences across countries (93% for CollectivismIndividualism; 86% for DutyJoy; 91% for DistrustTrust). Finally, a replication of Hofstedes study, conducted across 93 separate countries, confirmed the existence of the five dimensions and identified a sixth known as indulgence and restraint (Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). We thus decide to exclude the pride-in-nation question in the remainder of the analysis. Countries in italics are used in the first cohort (N = 15; Nrespondents = 108,064). Cultural differences can be explained by three factors: (a) economic development, (b) generational effects, and (c) a countrys unique geographic location and (political) history. It may even increase differences; on the basis of preexisting value systems, societies cope with technological modernization in different ways (Hofstede, 2001). It has to do with whether peoples self-image is defined in terms of I or We. Predicting cross-national levels of social trust: Global pattern or Nordic exceptionalism? Specifically, we apply Ingleharts intergenerational change thesis to a set of cultural dimensions inspired by Hofstedes work. The resulting nation-level longitudinal database summarizes the responses of 495,011 individuals surveyed between 1981 and 2014 in 110 countries based on stratified random sampling procedures. A high uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and risk-taking. Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries. The same holds true for Hofstedes IBM data, for which reason a replication with cross-national representative data from around the world is a strong desideratum. Javidan M., House R. J., Dorfman P. W., Hanges P. J., de Luque M. S. (2006). This allows us to explore cultural change in an absolute sense, and to shed light on the question to what extent cultural change is present in a cross-cultural framework inspired by Hofstede and whether it is present in the ways suggested by the evolutionary logic in the work of Inglehart and Welzel. This socialization hypothesis assumes that values take shape during adolescence and tend to become more stable as people age, so that similar cohort differences are visible at different cross-sections in time (Bengtson, 1975). The younger siblings had to leave home and make their own living with their core families. These societies emphasize traits such as persistence, perseverance, thrift, saving, long-term growth, and the capacity for adaptation. As our regression results reported below are not affected by data imputation, we decide to estimate the country score on this item and then calculate the score on the overall CollectivismIndividualism dimension for these 16 countries. VIF = variance inflation factor; OLS = ordinary least squares.

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